Timeline of American Involvement in Wars

Americans have been involved with wars both large and small since before the founding of the nation. The first such war, sometimes called  Metacom’s Rebellion or King Philips War, lasted 14 months and destroyed 14 towns. The war, tiny by todays standards, ended when Metacom (the Pokunoket chief called ‘King Philip’ by the English), was beheaded. The most recent war, Americas engagement in Afghanistan and Iraq following the 2001 attack on the World Trade Center, is the most protracted war in American history and shows no sign of ending. Wars over the years have changed dramatically, and American involvement has varied. For example, many of the earliest American wars were fought on  American soil. 20th-century wars such as World Wars I and II, by contrast, were fought overseas; few American on the home front saw any type of direct engagement. While the attack on Pearl Harbor during World War II and the attack on the World Trade Center in 2001 resulted in American deaths, the most recent war fought on American soil was the Civil War which ended in 1865–more than 150 years ago. Chart of Wars With American Involvement   In addition to the named wars and conflicts listed below, members of the American military (and some civilians) have played small but active roles in many other international conflicts.   Dates War in Which American Colonists orUnited States Citizens Officially Participated Major Combatants July 4, 1675–August 12, 1676 King Philip's War New England Colonies vs. Wampanoag, Narragansett, and Nipmuck Indians 1689–1697 King William's War The English Colonies vs. France 1702–1713 Queen Anne's War (War of Spanish Succession) The English Colonies vs. France 1744–1748 King George's War (War of Austrian Succession) The French Colonies vs. Great Britain 1756–1763 French and Indian War(Seven Years War) The French Colonies vs. Great Britain 1759–1761 Cherokee War English Colonists vs. Cherokee Indians 1775–1783 American Revolution English Colonists vs. Great Britain 1798–1800 Franco-American Naval War United States vs. France 1801–1805; 1815 Barbary Wars United States vs. Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli 1812–1815 War of 1812 United States vs. Great Britain 1813–1814 Creek War United States vs. Creek Indians 1836 War of Texas Independence Texas vs. Mexico 1846–1848 Mexican-American War United States vs. Mexico 1861–1865 U.S. Civil War Union vs. Confederacy 1898 Spanish-American War United States vs. Spain 1914–1918 World War I Triple Alliance: Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary vs. Triple Entente: Britain, France, and Russia. The United States joined on the side of the Triple Entente in 1917. 1939-1945 World War II Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan vs. Major Allied Powers: United States, Great Britain, France, and Russia 1950–1953 Korean War United States (as part of the United Nations) and South Korea vs. North Korea and Communist China 1960–1975 Vietnam War United States and South Vietnam vs. North Vietnam 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion United States vs. Cuba 1983 Grenada United States Intervention 1989 US Invasion of Panama United States vs. Panama 1990–1991 Persian Gulf War United States and Coalition Forces vs. Iraq 1995–1996 Intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina United States as part of NATO acted peacekeepers in former Yugoslavia 2001–present Invasion of Afghanistan United States and Coalition Forces vs. the Taliban regime in Afghanistan to fight terrorism. 2003–2011 Invasion of Iraq United States and Coalition Forces vs. Iraq 2004–present War in Northwest Pakistan United States vs. Pakstan, mainly drone attacks 2007–present Somalia and Northeastern Kenya United States and Coalition forces vs. al-Shabaab militants 2009–2016 Operation Ocean Shield (Indian Ocean) NATO allies vs. Somali pirates 2011 Intervention in Libya US and NATO allies vs. Libya 2011–2017 Lord's Resistance Army US and allies against the Lord's Resistance Army in Uganda 2014–2017 US-led Intervention in Iraq US and coalition forces against the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria 2014–present US-led intervention in Syria US and coalition forces against al-Qaeda, Isis, and Syria 2015–present Yemeni Civil War Saudi-led coalition and US, France and Kingdom against the Houthi rebels, Supreme Political Council in Yemen and allies 2015–present US intervention in Libya US and Libya against ISIS

The Differences Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic...

There are three main divisions of living organisms: Prokaryotes, eukaryotes and archaea. This essay will outline the division between the prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms and explore the reasoning behind such differences with regard to general structure, storage of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and its replication, metabolic processes, protein synthesis and ribonucleic acid (RNA) processing. The cell is the most basic unit of life, defined as â€Å"The fundamental ... structural and functional unit of all living organisms† (Oxford University Press, 2008). The prokaryotic cell is typically composed of a plasma membrane and cell wall, containing within it the cytosol and a structure known as the nucleoid. This is a single piece of circular or†¦show more content†¦This arises from the fact that the majority of eukaryotic cells occupy a function within a collaborative tissue or organ (or system), while prokaryotes, and even bacteria that form a multicellular environment, or biofilm, are themselves unicellular and therefore undifferentiated.[9][17] Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes organise and store their genetic information in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid. Differences arise, however, when examining their methods of DNA storage and its replication. Eukaryotic cells store most of their DNA in a membrane-bound nucleus, with the DNA itself organised into compact chromosomes. The nucleus is composed of an internal nucleolus, in which rRNA production occurs, and the nuclear envelope.[5] The nuclear envelope is a double membrane which is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum (R.E.R.), an organelle involved in the synthesis of proteins. In contrast, the nucleoid of a prokaryotic cell is simply one long circular strand of DNA with some associated proteins organised into a seemingly disordered complex. Despite this apparent disordered structure, analysis of nucleoid function in E.coli by Worcel and Burgi in the 1970s demonstrated its advantages e.g. resistance to DNA relaxation due to â€Å"unconstrained supercoiling† (Thanbichler, M., Wang, S., Shapiro, L., 2005). The storage of DNA in a nucleoid illustrates anShow MoreRelatedDifferences Between Prokaryotic And Eukaryotic Organisms1339 Words   |  6 PagesDiscuss the differences and similarities between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms In the past it was thought that you could not get anymore different than plants and animals. Both the plantae and animalia kingdoms, as well as the fungi and protista kingdoms are comprised of eukaryotic organisms, whether they are multi or unicellular, which have more in common with each other than they do with the members of the final kingdom, the prokaryotes. The word prokaryote roughly translated from GreekRead MoreThe Structure Of Eukaryotic Chromosomes1510 Words   |  7 Pagesthe structure of eukaryotic chromosomes, or condensed forms of DNA, and how they function helps scientists understand how human DNA is unique. These highly specialized cells help eukaryotic organisms, such as humans, to sustain life. What is a eukaryotic organism? A eukaryotic organism is any organism with complex cells, or a single cell with a complex structure. These eukaryotic organisms cells genetic material is organized into chromosomes found in a nucleus. These eukaryotic cells also have membraneRead MoreSimilarities And Differences Between Prokaryotic And Eukaryotic Cells1572 Words   |  7 Pagesdistinct nucleus†. The name prokaryotes is also defined by the Oxford dictionary as an organism that does not contain a ‘distinct nucleus with a membrane’. These two terms highlighted a very important difference between the two cells; eukaryotic cells had a true nucleus surrounded by a membrane but the prokaryotes did not. The following essay seeks to compare and contrast typical prokaryotic cells to typical eukaryotic cells. Cells can be organised into three domains as stated by Embley and WilliamsRead MoreDETAILED DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EUKARYOTIC AND PROKARYOTIC CELLS817 Words   |  4 PagesDETAILED DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EUKARYOTIC AND PROKARYOTIC CELLS Cells are divided into two categories namely the Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. These two have varying differences between them. Speaking in simple cell biology words, prokaryotes are primitive, simple organisms that lack membranous cell organelles. The opposite of this are eukaryotes, which are advanced and complex organisms having membrane bound cell organelles. Seemingly simple in structure and markedly different from eukaryote andRead MoreFunctions Of A Compound Microscope1435 Words   |  6 Pagesslides of organisms in the following exercises. The purpose of examining the specimens is to able to use a microscope to examine organisms, then be able to use that information to draw conclusions. For instance, the students should have been able to use their qualitative data to ascertain if the specimen was eukaryotic or prokaryotic or if the cell was a plant or animal cell. A eukaryotic cell is a membrane enclosed cell that contains membrane enclosed organelles, while a prokaryotic cell is a membraneRead MoreThe Effect Of Osmosis On Eukaryotic Cells1620 Words   |  7 PagesBiology EEI – Osmosis in Potatoes Purpose: The purpose of this investigation is to observe the effect of Osmosis in Eukaryotic cells; more specifically Potatoes under different sodium chloride solutions. Hypothesis: The hypotonic solution will demonstrate results of osmosis by gaining mass (g) by the conclusion of the testing period. This is because there is an increased presence of sodium chloride in the potato over the distilled water solution. Therefore the solvent moves from a low solute concentrationRead MoreThe Theory Of The Serial Endosymbiotic Theory1590 Words   |  7 Pagesfirst eukaryotic (an organism which contains a nucleus and organelles enclosed within a membrane ). Was pioneered in the 1960’s by the seminal work of Lynn Margulis. This theory attempts to explain the origins of eukaryotic cell organelles, specifically the mitochondria (providing the cells ATP (used for the cells metabolism) supply used by the cell as chemical energy ). With the theory suggesting that the mitochondria and plastids within a eukaryotic cell were once independent prokaryotic cellsRead MoreThe Differences Between Eukaryotic And Prokaryotic Cells1910 Words   |  8 PagesOrganisms are made up of cells which were considered as the basic unit of life. After the invention of microscope, Robert Hooke first discovered cells by looking at a dead cell from an oak tree. His finding brought the study of cell biology. According to the cell theory formulated by lots of scientists, all living organisms are composed of at least one cell which is the basic unit of life, and all cells come from pre-existing living cells. Cell is a wide type of substance that have variations betweenRead MoreProkaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Essay1028 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction In this lab, we observed different prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and then we observed a termite gut to see the different unicellular microorganisms that it contained. The purpose of this lab is to observe living and prepared bacterial cells, then describe their morphology, observe and describe the primary features of the eukaryotic cell, and to investigate and observe the organisms involved in a symbiotic relationship. By observing these things, we are hoping to find out what weRead MoreComparing The 18th Century Physician And Botanist Linnaeus Instituted A Taxonomic System1427 Words   |  6 PagesKingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species. Although with biologists learning to understand the system, another category was added known as Domain- this was categorized above Kingdom. This is because biologists recognized the differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes, which were once part of the five kingdoms alongside plantar, animalia and fungi. However having them part of the Kingdom category proved to be difficult. Thus the inclusion of three domains occurred - bacteria, archaea

Concludes Viability Limitations Involved †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Concludes Viability Limitations Involved? Answer: Introducation The strategy process involved in management realizes the crucial point of strategic reorientations, which is a necessity with the developing and changing economy. This tendency involved in marketing process tends to introduce alternatives intending that change is never full-proofed and thus introduces alternative approaches towards strategic management. While Strategic management is a formulated technique for the implementation of prime goals and decisions, involving initiatives of different aspects by the higher level management system as representatives of the owners of any organization or company (Laudon et al. 2012). The management plan actions accordingly, based on certain factors, considering the availability of resources and an intense assessment regarding the prevailing internal and external conditions influencing the sustainability and competence of the organization,. Another aspect of this is the Strategic Management Accounting (SMA) is the process to merge objectives with information of management accounting to create a model that would assist the management to take beneficial actions relative to productivity (Barney 2012). Thus, as a result, the strategic management is an organization majorly sets the priorities by channelizing the energy and resources in the correct oriented path to strengthen operations and establish a profound foundation. This report deals with the various approaches and limitations involved in strategic management. Alongside, mitigations are suggested towards a sustainable stature. Discussion: Strategic management is a consistent process involving the access to the business and the industries in which it is an essential part. This can be defined as an art and science that enables and evaluates the cross-functional decisions that enable an organization to achieve the set targets (Brodie and Mylopoulos 2012). The process generally involves the reconfigurations on an annual or quarterly basis. Certain strategy models implied in business planning is implemented, which can be discussed with the help of literature reviews on it. Distinctive group corresponds to the model strategy, one of which is the linear approach to strategic management (Hitt et al. 2012). Standard Linear Approach: The linear strategy approach majorly focuses on the planning or setting of objectives for an organization based on its competencies and an elaboration on the methodologies to achieve the same. In this approach, the leaders decide the ways to overcome endeavors set as a hindrance in the path of development and the achievements of goals (Hill et al. 2014). The key stages in the model involve managing profit figures and performances. The agreement on the visualization and value setting process is important following the engagement with the stakeholders and understanding their needs. This step in the process considers the revision of the instructions set to develop and achieve the objectives. Next to this step, is the analysis of the environment in a comprehensive manner, which helps in the determination of the strength, weakness, opportunities and threats, in short a constructive SWOT analysis is performed to achieve the targets (Wang and Feng 2012). A crucial step in this strategy mode l is the proper definition of goals and a strategic plan even in form of business models to provide a transparent view about the goals and methodologies. This step in the strategy also considers the availability of resources and the competencies of the organization involved in the discussion to support the implementation of the strategies. Another aspect involved is to develop an integrated annual business planning (Lee and Saen 2012). This plan includes the prospective of marketing, finance, human resource management and the operation management, developed and designed to interconnect each of the segment that complements each other. As an example to this, the segment dealing with the marketing strategies must prepare evaluations subjected to revenue targets and the service experiences dedicated to meet the demands from the potential customer base must be customized and redefined on a regular basis. Proper briefing and training to the employees about the objectives is essential, as appropriately as possible. This strategic move has the potential to interlink the various components of a business plan to maximize the profit section of the organization (Rothaermel 2015). The section dedicated to management of profit and performance ultimately determining the execution process of a strategy. This involves financial management set for the optimization of the profit and provides the updated information for decisions regarding the strategic planning, then is the operational productivity that determines the proper supply chain and delivery for maximizing the efficiency of an institution, the proper management towards employee effort and developing an advanced customer relationship. The Shortcomings Involved: While alongside the visible advantageous measures of strategic management certain shortcomings or disadvantages is also involved in this process. Strategic management majorly involves long-term goals and plans allowing an organization to leverage potentials, maximize the opportunities and thus provide the competitive advancement. This type of management also involves certain failures, which are difficult to handle or manage. This is a complex, time consuming and difficult implementation in a business process. Elaborating about the various shortcomings in this process demands the prior mention of the complexities surrounding this implementation or model (Peppard and Ward 2016). Strategic management involves persistent assessments of critical attributes mainly external and the internal environments influencing the business concepts, the infrastructure and the control management. These factors to an extent are in correlation, an effect on any one of these might affect the entire integrity, affecting the management and the leadership of the company. Next, this process is time consuming as a major section of time management is dedicated to the systematic planning research and appropriate communication of the decided strategies to the team, which might just impede the daily operations and adversely affect the productivity. Issues, if not solved timely, high level of employee turnover is the result (Barney 2012). Difficulty in implementation is another factor that involves many aspects to be dea lt with. An active participation and engagement between the employees and the manger is an essentiality otherwise ranging to incompatibility. Another essentiality is the skillful strategizing that involves a talented leader with an innovative thinking yet with potential to build a sustainable system and the management should be able to anticipate the future and strategize risk management. The Stakeholder Approach to Strategic Management: Various approaches relative to strategic management are profoundly established through all these years of organizational management. Firstly, the stakeholder approach to strategic management is discussed in the upcoming section of the report (Weiss 2014). The idea of stakeholder approach to strategic management is suggestive to the formulation and implementation of processes satisfies all and those who have expertise in business. This model integrates by connecting the interests of the stakeholders, employees, customers and all the other groups involved in the system. This particular approach lays its emphasis on an active type of management of the business relations and promotions (Asif et al. 2013). This approach comprises of certain distinctive characteristics. First in the queue, this approach provides a single strategic framework that help in dealing with changes in the environments relative to business without the requirement of regular reconfiguration of rules and codes. Secon dly, this approach is more a part of management rather than planning process, as a result building a direct guide for the organization to excel and in contrast determines how these changes will benefit the environment. The central theme for this approach is the sustainability of the organization. This approach constantly balances and integrates different or multiple objectives. Stakeholder approach in all ways ensures the development of relationships that would be beneficial in the long-term basis. This is in turn the promotion or support towards a value-based management in the business arena. This approach is conceptually perspective and descriptive in nature rather entirely empirical. This collaborate the political, economic and moral analysis. As this is based on facts and analysis it is descriptive in nature but always needs to go beyond the description to suggest directions for the business. It is more likely a process to create and influence rather than just adapt. This finall y is an integrated approach towards strategic decision-making. The strategy satisfies multiple stakeholders simultaneously, paying attention towards integration rather than the concept of overshadowing perspectives. Recent developments oriented in the recent theories relative to stakeholder approach involve the normative theories of business ensuring the investment in the long-term objectives and relationships. The stakeholder approach to corporate and organizational management theory is developed by analyzing the comparison between the traditional views that corresponds to pleasing the shareholders while the recent concentrates on benefiting the shareholders. Alongside, this approach concentrates on the social performance and responsibility. The Dynamic Capabilities in Strategic Management: Another interesting paradigm is the dynamic capabilities involved in strategic management with purpose to provide a framework in coherence with the functionality to integrate existing conceptualizations, the descriptive knowledge and the facilitating prescription (Teece 2012). This strategic approach has some basic assumptions that organizations have the possible potential achieve and sustain competitive advantages through the adaptations of dynamic capabilities approach to address the rapidly varying environmental conditions. Segregating the term, dynamic, refers to the capability to reconfigure competencies in order to achieve compatibility with the change prevailing in the business world. While, capabilities emphasizes on the key potential of the strategic management to adapt or accept the changes of the economic society. This approach provides a reflection to an organizations capability to achieve and create innovative ideas that forms the basis of the competitive advantages, provided the path dependencies and marketing positions. The dynamic capability framework comprises of certain segmentations involving processes, positions and paths. Initiating with the first segment, it describes the way things should be done inclusive of patterns, routines and relative learning. Second segment describes the recent or the current endowments for example technology, UP, complementary assets and other external relations. The path determines all the possible strategic alternatives present involving returns and attend ant path dependencies. This is a developing approach towards potential integration of recent and valuable resources for the competition in the market. To be strategically correct, a firm must be honed to the customer demands, relatively unique, which is difficult to replicate. The dynamic capability approach should take advantages of the paradigm to solve the complexities (Teece 2012). As an example to the involvement of dynamic capabilities, Apple and IBM are two companies that have real learning of evolution and its execution, supporting the rapid change of the society. Apple is a unique case, the company even not being a technological leader has proven its expertise in marketing technology-based stuff to the consumers and developed features that are valued. IBM, while, may be termed as a true innovator in all technical sense both in the internal and the market that they are part of. In recent times, they run a successful IT-based citing. Sustainability Approach to Strategic Management: Another approach in the strategic management is the idea of sustainability, which is an important aspect that should be maintained for a persistent growth of a firm or an organization. Sustainable development is an aspect of attention in the global business market. The benefits of sustainability are at times so indirect that it becomes a difficult aspect to be measure. The financial result that matters for an organization is a direct consequence of sustained practices maintained in any organization (Peteraf et al. 2013). This in turn results in a sustained profit. For sample understanding consider firstly, Cost Savings- a well-structured framework involving all the environmental protection witness less consumption of resources and thus bears low operational costs (Govindan et al. 2013). This is not just for any advanced technologies but also dependent on human behaviors, employees and the existing and potential clients (Ashby et al. 2012). Another example set for this is the increase d sales- correct and maintained sustainability witness a growth and higher level of productivity with increase in service quality providing customers with higher level of satisfaction, in return gain the loyalty from customers thus the brand excels in sustained practices (Markard et al. 2012). Conclusion On analysis of the processes and approaches involved in the strategic management as pre-mentioned are extremely beneficial but of course there is always a need to check through different measures and prospects involved in the process inclusive of the viability of approaches or the steps involved, the suggested benefits, implementation issues and limitations involved in the practices. Viability, Limitations and Mitigations Involved In Approaches: In context to stakeholders approach, it would be appropriate to comment, this model was assumed to be flawed, the reason not only being that of uncertainty and unpredictability but also due to the absence of a single-decision making criteria (Balzarova and Castka 2012). This approach is more vulnerable than all the non-shareholder constituencies as is discussed and predicted. The shareholders legally do not have the authority or power regarding any initiation of corporate actions. Researchers and analysts suggests and illustrates the use of positive reinforcing cycles of inclusion, which might help in building of stronger and more corporative stakeholder based relationships (Helfat and Peteraf 2015). The viability issue persists with certain implications surrounding the agenda for future research prospects involving critical issues such as the separation theory relative to stakeholder approach to develop more like an ethical issue rather than business theory and secondly, the stakeho lder approach grew out of practical aspects of business management, which requires more generalized solutions with theory developments. In context to dynamic capabilities, there are some potential critiques, primarily revolving about the difficulty to operational management of the same; there is a lack of algorithmic procedures surrounding the translation of environmental factors into the capabilities model. Another limitation lies in the path dependency and constant dynamics involved in the system. Using the present paradigms of the model, it is an essential requirement to develop a model with competence, which would prove sustainable with each changing dynamics of the society. In context to sustainable approach, sustainability is an important issue and a concern for any organization especially dealing with the changing dynamics of the society and environment (Eskerod and Huemann 2013). Even after this condition, it is suggested to each senior level management to take measures towards high-level approach in sustainability involving services and innovation techniques to satisfy and meet up with the demands from its customer base. Such an approach in strategic terms more than in operational or moral, it would be possible to connect the senior management with issues. This would help in management between short-term and long-term goals. References Ashby, A., Leat, M. and Hudson-Smith, M., 2012. Making connections: a review of supply chain management and sustainability literature.Supply Chain Management: An International Journal,17(5), pp.497-516. Asif, M., Searcy, C., Zutshi, A. and Fisscher, O.A., 2013. An integrated management systems approach to corporate social responsibility.Journal of cleaner production,56, pp.7-17. Balzarova, M.A. and Castka, P., 2012. Stakeholders influence and contribution to social standards development: The case of multiple stakeholder approach to ISO 26000 development.Journal of Business Ethics,111(2), pp.265-279. Barney, J.B., 2012. Purchasing, supply chain management and sustained competitive advantage: The relevance of resource?based theory.Journal of supply chain management,48(2), pp.3-6. Brodie, M.L. and Mylopoulos, J. eds., 2012.On knowledge base management systems: integrating artificial intelligence and database technologies. Springer Science Business Media. Eskerod, P. and Huemann, M., 2013. Sustainable development and project stakeholder accounting: what standards say.International Journal of Managing Projects in Business,6(1), pp.36-50. Govindan, K., Khodaverdi, R. and Jafarian, A., 2013. A fuzzy multi criteria approach for measuring sustainability performance of a supplier based on triple bottom line approach.Journal of Cleaner Production,47, pp.345-354. Helfat, C.E. and Peteraf, M.A., 2015. Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities.Strategic Management Journal,36(6), pp.831-850. Hill, C.W., Jones, G.R. and Schilling, M.A., 2014.Strategic management: theory: an integrated approach. Cengage Learning. Hitt, M.A., Ireland, R.D. and Hoskisson, R.E., 2012.Strategic management cases: competitiveness and globalization. Cengage Learning. Laudon, K.C., Laudon, J.P., Brabston, M.E., Chaney, M., Hawkins, L. and Gaskin, S., 2012.Management Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm, Seventh Canadian Edition (7th. Pearson. Lee, K.H. and Saen, R.F., 2012. Measuring operations sustainability management: A data envelopment analysis approach.International Journal of Production Economics,140(1), pp.219-226. Markard, J., Raven, R. and Truffer, B., 2012. Sustainability transitions: An emerging field of research and its prospects.Research policy,41(6), pp.955-967. Peppard, J. and Ward, J., 2016.The strategic management of information systems: Building a digital strategy. John Wiley Sons. Peteraf, M., Di Stefano, G. and Verona, G., 2013. The elephant in the room of dynamic capabilities: Bringing two diverging conversations together.Strategic management journal,34(12), pp.1389-1410. Rothaermel, F.T., 2015.Strategic management. McGraw-Hill Education. Teece, D.J., 2012. Dynamic capabilities: Routines versus entrepreneurial action.Journal of Management Studies,49(8), pp.1395-1401. Wang, Y. and Feng, H., 2012. Customer relationship management capabilities: Measurement, antecedents and consequences.Management Decision,50(1), pp.115-129. Weiss, J.W., 2014.Business ethics: A stakeholder and issues management approach. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Definition of the Practice of Multi-professional Working

Question: Give reflection on multi-professional working. The reflection must include a clear definition, an introduction to the range of professions that increasingly work alongside youth and community workers, in inter-professional settings. You are also asked to reflect on IP working from practice and then go to discuss the positives and challenges for practice. Answer: Introduction Standing in the starting part of twenty first century one must believe that nothing is impossible to do. Especially the youth generation is choosing their own way of life by choosing various professions according to their preferences. After completing all the studies, they are just willing to join different kind of professions like teachers, learning support worker in different office, IT sector etc. So as far as the youth work is concerned, I must say that the process is very independent i.e. it actually depends on the person who is going take the decision. Definition of the practice of Multi-professional working Multi-professional working is a practice where individuals from different professions come together to enhance the operation of a particular sector (Freeman, 2010). My concern of the study is to reflect how the environment of different professions impacts the social and healthcare sector of United Kingdom. In my experience as a palliative caregiver, in a popular palliative care center in Bristol, I have come across many persons from many professional backgrounds. The experience of working among various professions has increased my knowledge as well my capability to emphasize the particular impact different professions bring to achieve a particular common goal. The clear cut definition of multi-professional work setting can be aptly suited to my subject of concern. The culture or context can be defined as an environment of people belonging from different areas of expertise or professions working towards the collective goal of improving social care in our nation. The process of multi-professional working mainly refers to the fact of a team, a generic team for workplace-based or the case of undergraduate learning (Arum Roksa, 2011). In this process people from different background learn together. It is mainly a process or a mechanism where the effective team work ultimately improves the effectiveness and the patient care. This is actually done after finishing the under graduate courses, just exactly the time when every student try to seek job. The first step of their professional care sometimes starts with the multi-professional working where they get their individual scope to groom themselves up a lot more. This ultimately helps them to ach ieve better. Community workers This is one of many professions that the youths may choose. Community workers are the one who work for a particular community in order to increase the level of the community (Van Rooyen, 2014). This means that every work is done according to the criteria of any community such that the community will get the benefit after completing every single work. Some of the workers here are paid and some of them are unpaid. There is no need to differ the paid and the unpaid workers as everybody does their work depending on their own ethics and principles. Different definition of community worker The different definition of community worker can be defined as the way the workers do their work. It means that depending on the way of working of every single worker the definition can be established. Individual qualification Qualification actually refers to the fact of the studying level of each worker. It can be higher secondary education or university education. This fact actually defines the term individual qualification (Little, 2011). Experience Experience is another way defining the community workers. The worker, who has spent his or her more time in the working field, is considered to be the more efficient worker. Employment condition The workers are mainly described by the post in which he/she is working. Membership A particular organizational membership often describes the community workers (Armstrong-Stassen Schlosser, 2011). It means that a community worker will get to be known by being a member of any particular community. Inter professional education setting Inter professional education is mainly associated with the health care profession (Su McGettrick, 2012). After completing the study with medical science, students need to practice their work collaborate with the other students. This actually improves the effectiveness, which results a perfect professional future. This education mainly helps to develop the doctors in the best way. The youths who are willing to join the medical science after completing the higher secondary level of education must go through this kind of communicational study in order to achieve big success. The core committee and its ideology of multi-professional settings The doctors and technicians were consulted to gain knowledge of their first-hand experience of dealing with the medical aspects of detoxification of the body. The Youth services personnel were consulted and brought under the ambit of the panel. The inter professional setting and environment helped to resolve any doubt and conflict of views quickly. The presence of so much expertise just around the corner had helped in gaining the required knowledge for all professions to help deal with the youth and potential drug addicts. The community workers constantly voiced their opinions on engaging the parents and progeny of the addicts. They argued that if the addicts were counseled by their family members that would have a much long lasting effect on the period of staying clean. The youth workers stated that they have experience of many years which they have accumulated while working on many sensitive and general cases. The youth workers in their possession have a huge database which they claim have been collected since the 70s. The database has information about individuals who have been addicts and have been successful in staying clean for many years. The youth services stated that would urge those persons to come forward and give their inputs in solving this impending crisis. The technicians were roped in for their efforts in creating technology which may better sniff out the drugs present in the system. The toxicology report is true but not in all cases that have come to light. This environment of the multi professional working module was considered very eminent and had the capability to implement and put forward in the course of action. The standard working procedure initiated by the core committee comprising members from multiple professions was very robust, and considerable attention was devoted to the cause and effect theorem ("Organ donation procedure streamlined after murder", 2011). The positive impact of the strategy of multiple professions on board The positive aspects of this study of intermixing among many professions were that every profession now understood the challenges faced by other professions. This knowledge of each other's problems would be better helpful in dealing with adverse situations or conflicts. The understanding among many professions paved the way for the eventual success of the program. The community workers stopped blaming the law enforcement for their treatment of drug addicts, after coming to terms with the issues faced by law enforcement officers on a daily basis (KOLESNIK, 2013). The youth and community services were apprehensive about this joint panel of discussion, but when all professions reviewed every aspect of this situation in the panel, they were satisfied with the working of the body as a whole (VIDALL, 2010). The doctors were also motivated to work for the addicts in providing their medical knowledge and efforts to eradicate the problems (Fainzang, Hem, Risr, 2010). The overall strategy was implemented with the presence of so many professionals in the board of discussion. Challenges faced by the presence of multi-professional setting The presence of so many professions also hampered the fast paced progress of strategy making. The professionals belonging to different areas of professions were made to understand the realities of the situation (Meier, 2014). Considerable time and effort were dedicated to explaining the problem by all professions. Law enforcement officials proved to be the most challenging group with questions asked by them at all points, even when there isn't any need to raise questions. The core group members were sympathetic to all professions and patiently bore with them throughout the sessions conducted over months and sought out alternatives to a challenging task that lay ahead (Foerster Meltsner, 2012). The primary challenges were faced from medical professions, who objected too many decisions citing lack of safety and security of the procedure to be conducted upon the drug addicts. Many parties and professions professed the idea of segregating the users and placing them apart from mainstream life. That was supported by the law enforcement but not by youth workers who suggested that placing the addicts away from home and friends would put them at further risk of overindulging in drugs. This situation wasn't thought of before. Many hurdles were removed after several consultations with legal personnel to find and plug the gaps in the legislature of the kingdom, which allowed many dealers and suppliers to roam free and create havoc among the abusers and potential future abusers. Conclusion After having all the research work result in hand one thing can be said that the level of independency and the level of professionalism are increasing among the youths day by day. Inter professional work; community works are very famous these days. Students who are willing to join the service world after the completion of their education are going through various stages of professional skill development and then afterwards they are joining different job sectors as per their concerns. The youth work today is mainly representing the position of the todays generation as well as it is showing the path of success to the next generation who may follow this path or they will find more improved way of choosing their goal of life. References Armstrong-Stassen, M. Schlosser, F. (2011). Perceived organizational membership and the retention of older workers.Journal Of Organizational Behavior,32(2), 319-344. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.647 Arum, R. Roksa, J. (2011).Academically adrift. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Fainzang, S., Hem, H., Risr, M. (2010).The taste for knowledge. AÃÅ'Ã…  rhus: Aarhus University Press. Foerster, B. Meltsner, M. (2012).Race, rape, and injustice. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. Freeman, P. (2010). Improving inter-professional collaborations: multi-agency working for children's wellbeing.Research Papers In Education,25(1), 133-136. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02671520903416395 KOLESNIK, I. (2013). THE NOTION AND INDICATIONS OF LAW ENFORCEMENT TECHNOLOGY.Lams,4. https://dx.doi.org/10.14420/en.2013.4.6 Little, L. (2011).Trend qualification and trading. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley Sons. Meier, L. (2014).Migrant Professionals in the City. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. Organ donation procedure streamlined after murder. (2011).Nursing Standard,25(49), 5-5. https://dx.doi.org/10.7748/ns2011.08.25.49.5.p6036 Su, F. McGettrick, B. (2012).Professional ethics. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars. Van Rooyen, D. (2014). COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT WORKERS: FOUR LESSONS FROM INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE OF COMMUNITY-BASED WORKERS.Social Work,43(3). https://dx.doi.org/10.15270/43-3-270 VIDALL, C. (2010). Providing community oral chemotherapy services.European Journal Of Cancer Care,19, 29-34. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2354.2010.01196.x

Dental Clinic Database Essay Example

Dental Clinic Database Essay Our clinic was established on the year 1965 after taking the board exam. It was started with a modest dental chair and makes our living room as dental office. After several years of practice and after gaining the confidence of my patient the dental clinic expanded with two modern dental chairs. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The objective of this working group was to assess and make specific recommendations to improve the quality of reporting of clinical research in implant dentistry and discuss ways to reach a consensus on choice of outcomes. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Many dental procedures are performed in the dental hygiene clinic. The highly skilled and professional staff performs services which include preventive treatment. Health History (including blood pressure screening), Oral Cancer Screening, Periodontal Assessment, Oral Hygiene Education, Necessary Radiographs (X-rays), Pain control (topical/local anesthetic), Oral Prophylaxis (scaling, root planting polishing if needed), Flouride Treatment, Cleaning of Dentures, Smoking Cessation Education, Study Models, Tooth Desensitization and Home Care Aids are included. We will write a custom essay sample on Dental Clinic Database specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Dental Clinic Database specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Dental Clinic Database specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Procedures are done by first and second year dental hygiene students under the supervision of dental hygiene faculty who are registered dental hygienists and licensed dentists. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Since the mid-1990s, the focus of studies on tooth wear has steadily shifted from the general condition towards the more specific area of dental erosion; equally, a shift has occurred from studies in adults to those in children and adolescents. During this time, understanding of the condition has increased greatly. This paper attempts to provide a critical overview of the development of this body of knowledge, from earlier perceptions to the present. It is accepted that dental erosion has a multifactorial background, in which individual and lifestyle factors have great significance. Notwithstanding methodological differences across studies, data from many countries confirm that dental erosion is common in children and young people, and that, when present, it progresses rapidly. That the condition, and its ramifications, warrants serious consideration in clinical dentistry, is clear. It is important for the oral healthcare team to be able to recognize its early signs and symptoms and to understand its pathogenesis. Preventive strategies are essential ingredients in the management of patients with dental erosion. When necessary, treatment aimed at correcting or improving its effects might best be of a minimally invasive nature. Still, there remains a need for further research to forge better understanding of the subject. SCOPE AND LIMITATION Modern orthognathic surgical procedures allow correction of bony disproportion in almost any part of the face, but are limited in the fine tuning of tooth position and occlusion. However, carefully planned combined surgical and orthodontic treatment can produce dental and skeletal results of a high standard. If a GDP is presented with a malocclusion beyond the scope of normal orthodontic treatment, then referral to an oral surgery/orthodontic clinic is indicated. This article provides an overview of what the team on such a clinic can achieve. ORGAZINATIONAL CHARTÂ  Of MAYOR DENTAL CLINIC Dr. REGINO C. MAYOR Dra. GLORIA C. MAYOR DENTIST DENTIST Dr. ROMULO Y. MAYOR Dra. ROSELLE C. MAYOR DENTIST DENTIST Dra. MEG RIVERA Dra. ODETTE MARCELO-MAYOR DENTIST DENTIST LYN RODRIGUEZ ASSISTANT CHAPTER I Company Background CHAPTER II DATABASE DESIGN (Tables and Fields) DATABASE DESIGN (Tables and Fields) SUMMARY At this point, you should have forms created that allow the user to enter/edit data for Dentist, Dental Assistants, Patients, Procedures and Appointments (including the details of the appointments such as the procedures performed). CONCLUSION As the overall health of the dental office relies on monies being received and distributed, it is necessary to understand proper protocol and procedures. All of the numerous financial records should be protected for the patients, employees, and employer(s) alike. It is important for the office to receive fees quickly and attribute monies to the proper patient accounts. When those tasks are performed efficiently, office bills and employee payroll can be distributed. These duties can be performed swiftly and professionally via the use of a computer and the corresponding dental software, but also by using traditional manual methods and specialized office forms. CHAPTER III SUMMARY FINDINGS TASK DISTRIBUTION Joselito Poblete * Documentation Creator * Designer Jonathan Martinez * Encoder * Layout Neil Dela Cruz * Researcher * Data Gatherer DOCUMENTATION PICTURES COMPANY PICTURES CHECK UP STATION OPERATION ROOM WAITING AREA

Alternative chemical names Essay Example

Alternative chemical names Essay Example Alternative chemical names Essay Alternative chemical names Essay 1. Introduction: 1.1. Background on GHB Gamma hydroxybutyrate ( GHB ) is a fatty acid consists of a short concatenation with four Cs has the undermentioned expression: Ohio? ? ? CH2? ? ? CH2? ? ? ? CH2? ? ? ? COOH GHB has alternate chemical names including 4- hydroxybutyrate, 4- hydroxybutanoic acid, hydroxybutyric acid and Na ox bate. It is often supplied as a white pulverization that is odorless with somewhat piquant gustatory sensation, sometimes in capsules and on juncture as tablets. It can be taken orally and can be dissolved in H2O ( Wills, 2005 ) . GHB is a metabolite of Gamma -amino butyric acid ( GABA ) . Its presence in the encephalon shows unequal distribution and it is of import to cognize that comparatively higher degrees of GHB are discovered in kidney, bosom and skeletal musculus ( Nelson et al, 1981 ) . The normal concentration of GHB in the human encephalon is two to three times higher in the basal ganglia than in the intellectual cerebral mantles ( Okun et al. , 2001 ) . Barbaccia et Al, 2005 proposes that the presence of GHB in mammals including worlds, together with the unequal distribution in the encephalon and the talk that synthesis and release of GHB are regulated procedures, indicates that GHB may move as neurotransmitter and/or neuromodulator. GHB is an of import compound, in three respects, in that it is present endogenously as gamma Hydroxybutyric acid, abused drug as illegal GHB and a curative drug as Gamma Hydroxybutyrate, Na salt ; or sodium ox bates ( Carter et al. , 2009 ) . These facets are discussed below: 1.2. GHB as a curative drug GHB was synthesized in 1960 to bring forth an parallel for the ubiquitous inhibitory encephalon neurotransmitter GABA that would traverse the blood-brain barrier. It s used as anesthetic drug for minor surgical processs, but now the usage of GHB as an anesthetic is diminishing, although it is still permitted in Germany for endovenous anesthesia ( Caputo et al. , 2009 ) . GHB was known as Na ox bate under the trade name Xyrem for the intervention of cataplexy associated with narcolepsy, and for the intervention of utmost daytime drowsiness with narcolepsy ( Fuller and Hornfeldt, 2003 ) . Narcolepsy is considered as a sleep upset that is characterised by disconnected dark clip slumber and daylight sleepiness, and can besides include cataplexy which is characterised as loss of musculus tone with integral consciousness. Surveies in narcolepsy illustrate that GHB was valuable in handling the daylight cataplexy and helped it handling confused sleep/wake rhythms of these patients. GHB dark doses were selected to cut down the figure of night-time waking ups and daytime cataplexy ; besides it can develop a good form in narcoleptic patients ( Carter et al. , 2009 ) . In add-on, GHB is under survey for insomnia associated with schizophrenic disorder. There is some presymptomatic verification of the public-service corporation of GABA? -receptor agonists such as GHB for such sleep upsets ( Balla et al. , 2009 ) . GHB was found to cut down intoxicant backdown marks and symptoms such as shudder, sudating, sickness, depression, and anxiousness ( Gallimberti et al, 1989 ) . Reports are increasing about the effectivity of GHB in advancing abstinence in alkies taking to the blessing of GHB in Italy and Austria for the intervention of alcohol addiction under the trade name Alcover ( Begh A ; egrave ; and Carpanini, 2000 ) . A new survey, verified that GHB was more valuable than Valium in handling intoxicant backdown syndrome. GHB reduced anxiousness, agitation and current depression more quickly than Valium and every bit expeditiously as clomethiazole. GHB was used at the dosage of 50-100 mg/kg separated to three or four day-to-day doses, and no terrible side effects were registered ( Caputo et al. , 2009 ) . GHB is a supposed neurotransmitter that was consumed by organic structure builders to increase the release of growing endocrine, besides sold as a wellness quinine water to dieters and individuals with insomnia. GHB was manufactured throughout the late eightiess in the USA and marketed as a dietetic addendum in 1990s ( Chin et al, 1992, Okun et al. , 2001 and Wong et Al, 2004 ) . 1.3 GHB as a drug of maltreatment Throughout the late of 1990s GHB had became a popular drug in nines known as club drug due to its widespread among persons while go toing cabarets, raves, and circuit parties ( Wong et al, 2004 ) . GHB is abused significantly as a day of the month colza drug and as drug-facilitated sexual assault due to its ataractic and hypnotic effects ( Schwartz et al. , 2000 and Halkitis et al. , 2007 ) . In malice of Food and Drug Administration prohibition, this substance is still used. More than 40 instances of GHB toxic condition are reported in California with farther instances in other provinces. The forecast for GHB toxic condition instances is non bad ; there are no accepted studies of long-run inauspicious effects or deceases, nor any cogent evidence for physiological dependence ( Chin et al, 1992 ) . 2. Pharmacology of GHB Roth and Giarman ( 1970 ) demonstrated that GHB is a of course happening substance in the encephalon of mammals and suggested its function as a neurotransmitter. As illustrated in figure 1, the primary precursor of GHB in the encephalon is GABA, which is transformed into succinic semialdehyde ( SSA ) through a GABA-transaminase and so transformed into GHB by a specific succinic semialdehyde reductase ( SSR ) . GHB can besides be retransformed into SSA by a GHB dehydrogenase, and so SSA can be transformed back to GABA. SSA can besides be changed by succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase ( SSADH ) into succinic acid and so extra metabolized by the Krebs rhythm in chondriosome ( Caputo et al. , 2009 ) . GHB was revealed to heighten the activity of ventral tegmental country ( VTA ) dopaminergic nerve cells by the suppression of VTA GABAergic nerve cells and hence GHB enhances the release of Dopastat into the karyon accumbens ( NAc ) . The changing of NAc Dopastat degree is the cardinal action of many drugs of maltreatment, but most of them besides act on other sender systems besides. The other major mark is the glutamatergic system: improved glutamate transmittal is necessary to show drug-seeking, Restoration or sensitisation ; besides many drugs are exciting their ain receptor in the NAc ( Molnar et al, 2009 ) . 2.1. Pharmacokineticss of GHB GHB soaking up is rapid and the peak plasma concentrations following unwritten disposal are 30- 60 proceedingss. Unlike GABA, GHB easy crosses the blood-brain barrier, and the plasma half life of GHB is 20-30 min ( van Noorden et al. , 2009 ) . Although nutrient did non change riddance and urinary elimination of unchanged GHB, nutrient well affect the bioavailability of GHB by cut downing peak plasma concentration, lifting average time-to-peak concentration, and doing the country under the plasma concentration-time curve to be decreased, ( Borgen et al. , 2003 ) . Clearance is 14.0 milliliter min? ? kilogram? ? at a dosage of 12.5 mg/kg and half life is 20 proceedingss. GHB metamorphosis is really fast and leads it to come in the citric acerb rhythm as succinate which is converted to CO2 + H2O ( Doherty et al. , 1975 ) . GHB is about wholly oxidised to carbon dioxide and about 2- 5 % was eliminated in the piss ( Gantt et al. , 1997 ) . GHB is excreted in the piss, its about less than 5 % being unchanged with a maximal concentration after about 60 min. Therefore, GHB can non be detected after 24 hours following disposal, and piss can be used in forensic probes merely when the sample is collected about instantly after ingestion ( Brenneisen et al. , 2004 ) . GHB pharmacokinetics has been verified as nonlinear in worlds and rats and whole clearance diminutions with lifting dosage. Assorted mechanisms are joined to the nonlinear pharmacokinetics and these include capacity-limited metamorphosis, saturable soaking up, and nonlinear nephritic clearance. Nephritic clearance becomes increasingly of import in overdose conditions with high urinary concentrations reported in worlds ; nevertheless, metabolic clearance considered as the chief riddance tract for GHB ( Morris and Felmlee, 2009 ) . Elimination half-life corresponds to the clip needed for the concentration of drug in the plasma, or the drug sum in the organic structure, to cut down by half or 50 % , the t? of GHB is 0.3 -1.0 H, and the volume of distribution is 0.4 L/kg. Bioavailability of GHB after unwritten consumption is rather low, after five half-lives or about 97 % of a drug is eliminated from the organic structure ( Jones et al. , 2009 ) . 2.2. Pharmacodynamics of GHB GHB binds to both specific high-affinity GHB sites and to GABA? receptors, doing the apprehension of its neuropharmacology rather complex ( H A ; oslash ; g et Al, 2008 ) . Carter et al, 2009, revealed that there are several likely pharmacological mechanisms for GHB. GHB is metabolized to GABA, which binds to GABAA and GABA? receptors. Besides GHB can adhere to GABA? and/ or GHB receptors, like the NCS-382 ( 6, 7, 8, 9 -tetrahydro-5 ( H ) -5-ol- ylidene acetic acid ) drug besides adhering to GHB receptors. Selective ligands for GABAA, GABA? and GHB receptors are shown in Figure 2. A figure of the behavioural effects of GHB are non reversed by the GHB receptor adversary NCS-382, and are blocked by GABA? receptor adversaries. NCS-382 does non impact GABAA receptor-gated chloride channels or the GABA? receptor ( Ticku and Mehta, 2008 ) . This shows that some of the effects are independent of GHB receptors and GABA receptors. There is grounds from surveies of the interactions of GHB and baclofen with adversaries at the subtype of glutamate receptors called N-methyl-D-aspartate ( NMDA ) . The NMDA adversary dizocilpine ( MK- 801 ) increases GHB-induced catalepsy in gnawers and these cataleptic effects of GHB are increased non merely by MK-801 but besides by other drugs with NMDA antagonist action, such as PCP ( PCP ) and Ketalar, on the other manus, these NMDA adversaries do non impact the cataleptic effects of baclofen ( Koek et al, 2009 ) . The surveies show that chronic GHB usage enhances dopaminergic, acetylcholinergic and serotonergic neurotransmission, and down-regulation of GABA receptors ( van Noorden et Al, 2009 ) . 2.2.1. GABA receptors ( GABAA and GABA? receptors ) GABA? receptors are present on GABAergic and non-GABAergic nerve cells and can modulate neural ( GABAergic ) signalling pre- and post-synaptically by diminishing neurotransmitter release ( Bonanno and Raiteri, 1993 ) . Activation of GABA? receptors can increase the production of some neuroactive steroids that positively modulate GABAA receptors ( Barbaccia et al, 2002 ) . Activation of GABA? receptors by GHB can explicate the effects of GHB on GABAA receptor. Animal surveies revealed that GHB causes absence-like ictuss and this type of ictuss is aggravated by GABAA agonists ( Snead and Liu, 1992 ) . GHB effects differ from the effects of GABA, even though GHB is closely related to GABA and can trip GABA? receptors in elevated doses ( Molnar et al, 2009 ) . GHB is known to be metabolized to GABA and to adhere to GABAB and GHB receptors without demoing considerable binding to sites on GABAA receptors ( Carter et al, 2009 ) . GHB in little doses has anxiolytic effects in rats, these anxiolytic effects are non opposed by the GHB receptor adversary, NCS-382, nor by Narcan, which is the opioid receptor adversary. However, the anxiolytic effects of GHB are reversed by flumazenil, which is the benzodiazepine receptor adversary, bespeaking GHB interaction with GABAA receptors that mediate the anxiolytic effects of benzodiazepines ( Schmidt-Mutter et al. , 1998 ) . GHB given exogenously to cut down the symptoms of intoxicant backdown syndrome in worlds due to the transition of GHB to GABA which activate GABAA receptors ( caputo et al, 2009 ) . The chief important clinical consequence of exogenic GHB is a cardinal nervous system depression by adhering to the GABA? receptor. Surveies are show that GHB activates the GABA? receptor either straight or after transition into GABA ( Ticku and Mehta, 2008 ) . 2.2.2. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate ( GHB ) receptors GHB besides binds to the GHB receptors which are reported to be present in the mammalian encephalon. Several structural parallels of GHB were established to hold a selective activity for the GHB receptor without any consequence of GABA? receptor ( Ticku and Mehta, 2008 ) . Newly established derived functions of phenylacetic acid, including the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug ( NSAID ) diclofenac, bind to definite GHB adhering sites with affinity similar to GHB, and the presence of these separate GHB binding sites is besides supported by the production of selective GHB ligands such as NCS-382 ( H A ; oslash ; g et al. , 2008 ) . GHB receptors are found chiefly in nerve cells of the cerebral mantle, striate body, and hippocampus. Not merely is GHB an endogenous substrate for GHB receptors but besides succinate, a common tricarboxylic acerb rhythm metabolite binds to the same site ( Molnar et al, 2009 ) . 2.3. GHB prodrugs: gamma-butyrolactone ( GBL ) and 1, 4-butanediol ( 1, 4-BD ) The GHB parallels GBL and 1, 4-BD became popular drugs, as a effect of the Food and Drug Administration prohibition on nonprescription GHB in 1990, they are quickly metabolized to GHB by the enzymes serum lactonase and intoxicant dehydrogenase, respectively.The clinical effects of GBL and 1, 4-BD are tantamount to the effects of exogenously administered GHB e.g. , sleepiness, euphory and animal feeling ( van Noorden et Al, 2009 ) . GBL and 1, 4-BD compounds are present of course in rat encephalon at concentrations of about 1/10 of concentrations of GHB. These paths may be of significance to the synthesis of GHB under restricting conditions ( Lyon et al, 2007 ) . 3. Behavioral effects of GHB Survey in 1964 characterizes GHB as hypothermic, hypnotic, anesthetic, and anti-convulsant, with no clear respiratory depression or toxicity ( Carter et al, 2009 ) . Regular disposal of GHB causes down ordinance of GABA receptors, this lead to drug dependance as a agency to maintain up homeostasis ( Constantinides and Vincent, 2009 ) . A figure of carnal surveies indicate that the habit-forming belongingss of GHB may be mediated through the GABA? receptor ( van Noorden et Al, 2009 ) . Numerous surveies propose that GABA? receptors are chiefly indispensable for assorted behavioral effects of GHB, including hypolocomotion, catalepsy, ataxy, loss of compensating, decreased operant responding, and discriminatory stimulation effects. The typical GABA? receptor agonist baclofen besides produce all of these effects of GHB. GABA? receptors have a important function on the GHB effects ; nevertheless, the effects of GHB are like but non indistinguishable to the effects of the baclofen, which is a typical GABA? receptor agonist ( Koek et al, 2009 ) . 4. Changes in cistron look in GHB treated cells GHB is known to hold profound pharmacological effects, through binding to either the GHB receptor or GABA receptors. It is therefore possible that exposure to GHB can be monitored beyond 12 hours by mensurating GHB dependent alterations in cistron look. In old surveies, two messenger RNA transcripts have been identified as being up regulated following GHB exposure epiregulin and Phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes of 15 kDa ( PEA-15 ) . The same survey revealed that GHB bring on cistron look alterations in a mouse theoretical account, and these alterations depend on the clip interval station exposure ( Larson et al, 2007 ) . 4.1. Epiregulin look in GHB treated cells The growing and distinction of cells are controlled by peptide growing factors and there is grounds that this growing control involves growing factors and their receptors in tumour every bit good as non-tumor cells. Epiregulin is considered as a member of the cuticular growing factor household ( Toyoda et al, 1995 ) . The cuticular growing factor receptor ( EGFR ) belongs to a household of cell surface receptor tyrosine kinases and many different growing factors can function as ligands for the EGFR and these include cuticular growing factor ( EGF ) , transforming growing factor-R ( TGF-R ) , heparin-binding EGF-like growing factor ( HB-EGF ) , betacellulin ( BTC ) , amphiregulin ( AR ) , epiregulin ( EPR ) , and epigen ( EPG ) . All EGFR ligands are synthesized as membrane proteins and released from the cell surface by regulated proteolysis ( Baldys et al, 2009 ) . 4.2. Phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes of 15 kDa ( PEA-15 ) look PEA-15 is a little protein ( 15 kDa ) that was recognized ab initio as a plentiful phosphoprotein in encephalon astrocytes. A figure of surveies have established that PEA-15 regulate multiple cellular maps through its interaction with constituents of chief intra- cellular transduction tracts ( Sharif et al, 2004 ) . PEA-15 is a little anti-apoptotic protein expressed in a wide assortment of tissues and enrich in astrocytes, a figure of surveies showed that PEA-15 is capable to adhere to the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 ( ERK2 ) , even though it is non a substrate. The ERK2 cascade is activated by a aggregation of external factors such as growing factors, endocrines, and neurotransmitters. When initiated, the cascade plays of import functions in a scope of cellular actions such as proliferation, distinction, and programmed cell death. The inactivated ERK2 is normally situated in the cytosol. The over look of PEA-15 prevents ERK2 from roll uping in the karyon, proposing that one function of PEA-15 is to attach ERK2 in the cytosol ( Callaway et al, 2007 ) . PEA-15 plays an anti-apoptotic function in cellular tracts in a figure of cell types including malignant neoplastic disease cells and it s more expressed in terminally differentiated cells advancing endurance ( Mizrak et al, 2007 ) . Phosphoprotein enriched in diabetes/phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes ( PED/PEA-15 ) is overexpressed in several tissues of persons affected by type 2 diabetes. In integral cells and in transgenic animate being theoretical accounts, PED/PEA-15 over look impair insulin ordinance of glucose conveyance and this is mediated by its interaction with the C-terminal D4 sphere of phospholipase D1 ( PLD1 ) and the attendant addition of protein kinase C- activity. ( Viparelli et al, 2008 ) 4.1. SHSY5Y cell line The SH- SY5Y cell line is a three times cloned neuroblastoma cells, originated from the neuroblastoma line SK-N-SH which are originally established from a bone marrow biopsy of a neuroblastoma patient and neuroblastoma line SK-N-MC. SHSY5Y cells are described foremost in 1978 and go avaiable for surveies ( ( Biedler et al,1973 and Biedler et al,1978 ) . Recent surveies in SH-SY5Y cell lines illustrate the efficiency of transition of 1,4 Butanediol to GHB when the chief GHB synthesis tract from GABA is closed, one time the concentration of GHB is lowered, the cell respond to counterbalance GHB, this explains the presence of specific doorsill for GHB in the cell ( Lyon et al, 2007 ) . The SHSY5Y cells are often used as a neural cell theoretical account due to their sympathetic characteristic and low resting membrane potency, SHSY5Y cells are used in many surveies associating to tumour cell growing and neural cell biological science ( Tosetti et al, 1998 ) . Astroglial cell line The cardinal nervous system consists of a figure of cell populations, largely nerve cells, microglial cells and macroglial cells. The chief macroglial cell types are astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Many maps including cellular support, ion homeostasis, neurotransmitters uptake, CNS immune system part and neuromodulation are attributed to astroglia ( Ridet et al, 1997 ) . Astrocytes are late considered as cells that propagate Ca2+ over drawn-out distance in response to stimulation, and, like nerve cells, release senders ( called gliotransmitters ) in a Ca2+-dependent mode to set a host of important encephalon maps. Astrocytes are besides stated to play an of import function in modulating neural excitant synaptic activity by Ca2+-dependent release of the gliotransmitters glutamate and ATP ( Fiacco, et Al, 2009 ) . Recent surveies found that the chief consequence of GHB in the karyon accumbens ( NAC ) was the activation of subpopulation of astrocytes. It induced Ca2+ transients in a subpopulation of astrocytes and this consequence is dose-dependent. GHB did non move on GABA? receptor or GHB receptor in the NAC, but induced Ca2+ transients in a subpopulation of astrocytes. The activation of astrocytes by GHB proposes their association in GHB-mediated physiological effects ( Molnar et al, 2009 ) . 5. Purpose of this survey This survey is aimed to widen the window of sensing of GHB beyond 12 hours through happening robust alternate markers of GHB disposal. GHB maltreatment and particularly in day of the month colza sexual assaults has increased in recent old ages. Current sensing methods rely on trying blood and piss but the rapid rate of metamorphosis of GHB means that GHB can vanish and the condemnable instances are frequently hard to prosecute. However, GHB is known to hold profound pharmacological effects, through binding to either the GHB receptor or GABA receptors. It is therefore possible that exposure to GHB can be monitored beyond 12 hours by mensurating the GHB dependant alterations in cistron look. 6. Survey program In this survey, the consequence of different doses and times of GHB exposure on the look of epiregulin, PEA-15 and other cistrons in SH-SY5Y cells and astroglial cells will be evaluated utilizing a combination of quantitative RT-PCR, Western smudges and proteomics ( 2D-gels ) . I hope that a full look profile will be obtained, and besides that the mechanism of ordinance can be elucidated, including finding of the function of GHB and GABA receptors in interceding these effects, by proving GHB, GBL1 and1, 4-BD, in add-on to GHB and GABA receptors antagonsts. 7. Decision GHB is an of import and actuating compound in that it is present endogenously as gamma Hydroxybutyric acid, abused drug as illegal GHB, and a curative drug as Gamma Hydroxybutyrate, Na salt ; or sodium ox bates. GHB has been extensively used in a date-rape sexual assaults in the last old ages and the condemnable instances are frequently hard to prosecute, it causes a forensic job due to its rapid metamorphosis and riddance. GHB is besides found endogenously as a metabolite of GABA neurotransmitter. However, it expresses many characters that indicate it can be a neurotransmitter itself. GHB is an of import and actuating compound in that it is present endogenously, abused drug, and a curative drug. 8. Mentions: Baldys A. , Go?oz M. , Morinelli TA. , Lee MH. , Raymond JR. , Luttrell LM. and Raymond Sr. ( 2009 ) . Essential function of c-Cbl in amphiregulin-Induced Recycling and signaling of the endogenous cuticular growing factor receptor. Biochemistry, Vol. 48, No.7: 1462-1473 Balla A. , Nattini M.E. , Sershen H. , Lajtha A. , Dunlop D.S. , and Javitt D.C. ( 2009 ) . GABAB/NMDA receptor interaction in the ordinance of extracellular do-pamine degrees in gnawer prefrontal cerebral mantle and striate body. Neuropharmacology 56: 915-921 Barbaccia ML. , Carai M.A. , Colombo G. , Lobina C. , Purdy R.H. and Gessa G.L. ( 2005 ) . Endogenous gamma-aminobutyric acid GABAA receptor active neurosteroids and sedative/hypnotic action of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid ( GHB ) : a survey in GHB-S ( sensitive ) and GHB-R ( resistant ) rat lines. Neuropharmacology 49, pp. 48-58. Barbaccia M.L. , Colombo G. , Affricano D. , Carai A.M. , Vacca G. and Melis S. ( 2002 ) . GABAB receptor-mediated addition of neurosteroids by? -hydroxybutyric acid. Neuropharmacology 42: 782-791 Begh A ; egrave ; F. and Carpanini M.T. ( 2000 ) . Safety and tolerability of gamma- hydroxybutyric acid in the intervention of alcoholic patients. Alcohol 20: 223-225. Biedler J. L. , Helson L. , and Spengler B. A. ( 1973 ) . Morphology and growing, tumorigenicity, and cytogenetics of human neuroblastoma cells in uninterrupted civilization. Cancer Res. 33, 2643-2652. Biedler J.L. , Tarlov S.R. , Schachner M. , and Freedman L.S. ( 1978 ) . Multiple Neurotransmitter Synthesis by Human Neuroblastoma Cell Lines and Clones. Cancer Research 38, 3751-3757. Bonanno G. and Raiteri M. ( 1993 ) . Multiple GABA? receptors. Tendencies Pharmacol Sci 14: 259-261 Borgen. L. A. , Okerholm. R. , Morrison.D. and Lai. A. ( 2003 ) . The influence of gender and nutrient on the pharmacokinetics of Na oxybate unwritten solution in healthy topics. J Clin Pharmacol 43 ( 1 ) : 59-65. Brenneisen. R. , Elsohly. M.A. , Murphy.T.P. , Passarelli. J. , Russmann.S. , Salamone.S.J and Watson.D.E ( 2004 ) . Pharmacokinetics and elimination of gamma-hydroxybutyrate ( GHB ) in healthy topics. J. Anal Toxicol 28 ( 8 ) : 625-30. Callaway K. , Abramczyk O. , Martin L. , and Dalby KN. ( 2007 ) . The anti-apoptotic protein PEA-15 is a tight binding inhibitor of ERK1 and ERK2, which blocks docking interactions at the D- enlisting Site. Biochemistry, 46: 9187-9198 Caputo F, Vignoli T, Maremmani I, Bernardi M and Zoli G. ( 2009 ) . Gamma hydroxybutyric acid ( GHB ) for the intervention of intoxicant dependance: a reappraisal. Int. J. Environ Res Public Health. 6 ( 6 ) :1917-29. Carter L.P. , Koek W. , and France C.P. ( 2009 ) . Behavioral analyses of GHB: Receptor mechanisms. Pharmacol. and therap. 121: 100-114. www.elsevi vitamin E r.com/locate/pharmthera Chin M.Y. , Kreutzer R.A. and Dyer J.E. ( 1992 ) . Acute poisoning from -y-hydroxybutyrate in California. West J. Med 1992 Apr ; 156:380-384. Constantinides P. and Vincent P. ( 2009 ) . Chronic gamma-hydroxybutyric-acid usage followed by gamma- hydroxybutyric-acid backdown mimic schizophrenic disorder: a instance study. Cases J.10 ; 2:7520. Doherty J.D. , Stout R.W. and Roth. R.H. ( 1975 ) . Metamorphosis of ( 1-14C ) gamma-hydroxybutyric acid by rat encephalon after intraventricular injection. Biochem Pharmacol 24 ( 4 ) : 469-74. Fiacco TA, Agulhon C, and McCarthy KD. ( 2009 ) .Sorting out astrocyte physiology from pharmacological medicine. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 49:151-74. Review. Fuller D.E. and Hornfeldt C.S. ( 2003 ) . From club drug to orphan drug: Na oxybate ( Xyrem ) for the intervention of cataplexy. Pharmacotherapy 23: 1205-1209. Gallimberti L. , Canton G. , Gentile N. , Ferri M. , Cibin M. and Ferrara S.D. ( 1989 ) .Gamma- hydroxybutyric acid for intervention of intoxicant backdown syndrome. Lancet 30:787-789. Gantt P.G. , Frederick S.L. , Frank E. , Staggers J.R. Marco G.S. , Alex S. and David E.S. ( 1997 ) Gamma- hydroxybutyrate: an emerging drug of maltreatment. Addiction, 92 ( 1 ) : 89- 96 Halkitis P.N. , Palamar J.J. and Mukherjee P.P. ( 2007 ) . Poly-club-drug usage among homosexuals and bisexual work forces: a longitudinal analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend 89, pp. 153-160. H A ; oslash ; g S. , Wellendorph P. , Nielsen B. , Frydenvang K. , Dahl IF. , Osborne HB. , Brehm L, Fr A ; oslash ; lund B. and Clausen RP ( 2008 ) . Novel high-affinity and selective biaromatic 4-substituted? -hydroxybutyric acid ( GHB ) analogues as GHB ligands: design, synthesis, and adhering surveies. J. Med. Chem. , 51: 8088-8095 Jones AW, Eklund A. and Kronstrand R. ( 2009 ) . Concentration-time profiles of gamma- hydroxybutyrate in blood after recreational doses are best described by zero-order instead than first-order dynamicss. J Anal Toxicol. 2009 Jul-Aug ; 33 ( 6 ) :332-5 Koek W. , Mercer S.L. , Coop A. , and France C.P. ( 2009 ) . Behavioral effects of? -Hydroxybutyrate, its precursor? -Butyrolactone, and GABA? receptor agonists: clip class and differential hostility by the GABA? Receptor antagonist 3- Aminopropyl ( diethoxymethyl ) phosphinic Acid ( CGP35348 ) . J. Pharmacoogy and Experimental Therapeutic vol. 330 ( 3 ) :876-883. Larson SJ, Putnam EA, Schwanke CM, Pershouse MA. ( 2007 ) . Potential alternate markers for gamma-hydroxybutyrate disposal may widen the sensing window from 12 to 48 hours. J. Anal. Toxicol. 31: 15-22. Lyon, R. C. , . Johnston. S. M, Watson.D.G. , McGarvie.G and Ellis.E.M. ( 2007 ) . Synthesis and katabolism of gamma-hydroxybutyrate in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells: function of the aldo-keto reductase AKR7A2. J Biol Chem 282 ( 36 ) : 25986-92. Mizrak S.C. , Mihara F.R. , P A ; aacute ; rraga M. , Bogerd J. , van de Kant H.J.G. , L A ; oacute ; pez-Casas P.P. , Paz M. , delMazo J. and de Rooij D.G. ( 2007 ) . Phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes-15 is expressed in mouse testicle and protects spermatocytes from programmed cell death. Reproduction 133: 743-751 Moln A ; aacute ; R T. , Antal K. , Nyitrai G. and Emri Z. ( 2009 ) . gamma-Hydroxybutyrate ( GHB ) induces GABA? receptor independent intracellular Ca2+ transients in astrocytes, but has no consequence on GHB or GABA ( B ) receptors of medium spinous nerve cells in the karyon accumbens. Neuroscience 162: 268-281 Morris ME and Felmlee MA. ( 2009 ) . Overview of the proton-coupled MCT ( SLC16A ) household of transporters: word picture, map and function in the conveyance of the drug of maltreatment gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. AAPS J. 10 ( 2 ) :311-21. Nelson T. , Kaufman E. , Kline J and Sokoloff L. ( 1981 ) . The extraneural distribution of gamma- hydroxybutyrate. J Neurochem 37 ( 5 ) : 1345-8. Okun MS, Boothby LA, Bartfield RB. and Doering PL. ( 2001 ) Gamma hydroxybutyrate: an of import pharmacologic and clinical update. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci 4 ( 2 ) :167-175. Ridet J. L. , Malhotra S.K. , Privat A. and Gage F.H. ( 1997 ) . Reactive astrocytes: cellular and molecular cues to biological map. Trends Neurosci 20, pp. 570-577. Roth R. and Giarman N. ( 1970 ) . Natural happening of gamma-hydroxybutyrate in mammalian encephalon. Biochemical Pharmacology 19: 1087- 1092. Schmidt-Mutter C. , Pain L. , Sandner G. , Gobaille S. and Maitre M. ( 1998 ) . The anxiolytic consequence of gamma hydroxybutyrate in the elevated plus labyrinth is reversed by the benzodiazepine receptor adversary, flumazenil. European Journal of Pharmacology 342: 21-27. Schwartz RH, Milteer R, and LeBeau MA. ( 2000 ) . Drug-facilitated sexual assault ( date colza ) . South Med J. 93 ( 6 ) :558-561. Sharif A. , Renault F. , Beuvon F. , Castellanos R. , Canton B. , Barbeito L. , Junier M.P. , and Chneiweiss H. ( 2004 ) . The look of PEA-15 ( phosphoprotein enriched in astrocytes of 15 kDa ) defines subpopulations of astrocytes and nerve cells throughout the grownup mouse encephalon. Neuroscience 126: 263-275. Snead O.C. and Liu C.C. ( 1992 ) . GABAA receptor map in the? -hydroxybutyrate theoretical account of generalised absence ictuss. Neuropharmacology 32 ( 1993 ) , pp. 401-409 Ticku M.K. and Mehta A.K. ( 2008 ) . Word picture and pharmacological medicine of the GHB receptor. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1139: 374-385 Tosetti, P. , Taglietti, V. , Toselli, M. ( 1998 ) . Functional alterations in K conductance of the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y during in vitro distinction. J. Neurophysiol. 79, 648-658 Toyoda H. , Komurasaki T. , Uchida D. , Takayama Y. , Isobe T. , Okuyama T. , and Hanada K. ( 1995 ) . Epiregulin. A fresh cuticular growing factor with mitogenic activity for rat primary hepatocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 7495-7500. new wave Noorden M.S. , new wave Dongen L.C. , Zitman F.G. and Vergouwen T.A. ( 2009 ) . Gamma- hydroxybutyrate backdown syndrome: unsafe but non well-known. Gen. Hosp. Psych. vol.31 ( 4 ) :394-6 Viparelli F. , Cassese A. , Doti N. , Paturzo F. , Marasco D. , Dathan N.A. , Monti S.M. , Basile G. , Ungaro P. , Sabatella M. , Miele C. , Teperino R. , Consiglio E. , Pedone C. , Beguinot F. , Formisano P. , and Ruvo M. ( 2008 ) . Targeting of PED/PEA-15

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Planning and Preparing to Teach - Essay Example In the process of going through the discussion, appropriate teaching and learning approaches will be tackled in details followed by identifying some strategic ways on how the paramedics can deliver inclusion sessions to motivate the learners to learn the best technique in managing the patients’ airway. To meet the curriculum requirements, the use of teaching and learning strategies as well as important resources will be discussed one by one. The paramedics has a huge role and responsibilities to meet when teaching the students to conduct basic life support such as the cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and first-aid techniques when dealing with emergency and life-threatening cases (Hazinski, et al., 2004). Specifically the blood loss that may occur when the victim is seriously injured can lead to cardiac arrest (The American Heart Association in collaboration with the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation., 2000). This situation requires immediate call for ambulance, CPR, early defibrillation (if necessary), and early advanced life support to prevent brain death (Hazinski, et al., 2004; Hickey et al., 1995). By encouraging the students to perform immediate action, paramedics will be able to increase the survival rate of the victim (Robertson, 2000). Obstruction in the patient’s normal airway functioning is a life-threatening scenario since the lack of oxygen that flows in the blood that flows through the human body can lead to end-organ damage, hypoxia, hypoxemia, and high mortality rates. (Eddleston et al., 2006; Levy, 2005; St. John, 2004; Ayus & Arieff, 1995) For this reason, it is crucial on the part of the paramedics to pay close attention with the patients’ breathing pattern during the assessment stage. Given that the patient shows signs and symptoms that there is an obstruction to the patients’ airway, paramedics should immediately establish the patient’s airway as part of the initial management

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Construction, operation and associated circuitry of common - Assignment Example Even so, this should not be applied in the spaces such as courtroom and conference hall, which find instantaneous controls to be important. The dimming characteritisc could be achieved through the fixing with fluorescent and incandescent as well as with HID. One of the forms of lighting is alcove lighting. It is ordinary in that it is indirect. This finds a lot of application in the fluorescent lighting, neon lighting or even rope. This can also be described as a form of backlighting. There are other approaches that could be utilized to compelement this form of lighting. For example, close-to-wall lighting, or soffit, could be utilized to bring out an appealing texture, although this has its limitations. More often than not, the effect is dependent upon the specification of the light that has been used. Recessed lighting is the widely applied feature and has fixtures that are attached to the ceiling to look appealing. The forms of lighting can utilize the narrow spotlight beams and c ould even be made with reflectors. There are also the cases when the downlights comprising internal reflector could be designed to accommodate the A-lamps. Furthermore, the downlights could be LED, fluorescent, high density discharge or indecadent (Theraj, 2001). Another form of lighting is track lighting. This form of lighting earned popularity because it was easy to install, compared to the recessed form of lighting. Its fixtures are now also made decorative and can also be attached to the walls. The current popularity of these forms of lighting rests upon its ability to use low voltage, yet they assure safety in addition to the fact that they are decorative. Their circuits are fed by master transformers through the fixtures on the rod, as opposed to the approach where even light is fed by a set of transformers.The third form of lighting is cable lighting, which is simply a modified form of track lighting. Here, the lights hang from clipped cables that rest on tension. Nevertheles s, illuminated ceiling is also another form of lighting that was popular in the 1970s. This form of lighting relied on the panels of diffusers that were suspended below the fluorescent lights. It finds a lot of application in all the general forms of lighting. Lastly, neon lighting could also be considered as a form of lighting, which mainly served an artistic function. Cul-de-sac Street lighting. Here, one of the requirement is that the luminaries should be designed so that they are in compliance with the local zoning laws. The IES Lighting Handbook offes comprehensive insights regarding the values that should be accorded to the exterior spaces. If the building program makes specifications of a flood lighting, they should be provided while the exterior lighting should be such that it blends with the external features of the buildings. Roadway and Parking Lighting. The roadway and parking lighting should be integrated with HD sources of light but should not go beyond the recommded v alues of 4 to 10 and 10 to 1 ratios. The parking areas should have luminaries that are not only efficient but also mounted on the poles. Sodium lamps may be preferable, but their impact should blend well with the environment. TASK 2 The Principles of Good Lighting Design There are various principles that have been developed regarding efficient lighting and lighting systems. The widely adopted

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Capital Assets Pricing model |Analysis Since 1970 the financial company using the Capital Assets Pricing Model (CAPM) to calculate their cost of the portfolio performance and the cost of capital. However, there are a lot of models in assets pricing have to identify the riskiness of the assets, and there are many of the researchers have developed the capital assets pricing model (CAPM) and contribute in pricing the risky financial assets such as, Mossin (1966), Sharpe (1964) and Lintner (1965). CAPM calculated the risk of assets by measuring the risk premium for each unit across the entire assets and measuring the means of market beta. Therefore, the CAPM module has a linear relationship between the market beta and the risk premium of the assets which can be considered as a methodical risk. Moreover, the CAPM illustrated that the assets return is fluctuated due to the values of the assets market beta. (Fazil, 2007) Advantages of CAPM However, Capita Assets Pricing Model (CAPM) is useful to examine the performance of portfolios and evaluating the cost of equity for the companies. And determine the theories of asset pricing. While, before CAPM had been founded by John Linter (1965) and William Sharpe (1964) there were no models can help in assets pricing models and predictions about returns and risk. The attraction of the capital asset pricing model considered to be powerful in assessing the risk and determine the relationship between the risk and expected return. In contrast, the simplicity of the CAPM reflects true failing and let to an inefficient record about invalidate the way it is used in applications. Also, the inadequacy of the empirical tests and proxies for the market portfolio led to fail in the model. However, if the difficulties of the market broker invalidate the model test, it also will cancel many applications, which normally lend the market broker used in empirical tests. While, for the expectation about the expected return and risk, the researcher will start with the logic summary. After that, will illustrate the previous empirical application on the model and explanation about the challenges of the shortcoming of the Capital Assets Pricing Model (CAPM) (Fama and French, 2003) Fama and French model The assessment of the cost of equity and the expected return for the individual investor or individual share is considered to be an important point for the financial decision, for instance, the investors who are associated to the capital budgeting, evaluating the performance and portfolio management. Therefore, there are two alternatives for this reason. Firstly, we can use on a factor which is Capital Assets Pricing Model (CAPM). Secondly, we can use the there-factor model which is known as Fama and French model. Although, there are many indications from academic literature for assess and evaluating the portfolio returns, and there are many users of the two models such as, Bruner, Eades, Harris and Higgins (1998) and Graham Harvey (2001) who prefer the (CAPM) model to assess and evaluate the cost of equity.( Bartholdy and Peare, 2005). The (CAPM) model consider the accurately of choosing a market portfolio broker, and the difference in the returns of the security is the only appropriate source of methodical risk. Consequently, the premium of the risk on the portfolio of the securities or individual security consider as the function of methodical risk which can be measured by beta on the appropriate benchmark index. In contrast, Fama and French (1993) changed the capital assets pricing model (CAPM) to three factors. Firstly, portfolios explain the variation in the return of the company with high opposed to the low market value ratio. Secondly, portfolios illustrate the difference in the expected returns of large and small companies (SMB). Finally, the premium of the risk on the security is primary for methodical risk and can be measured by betas. Moreover, Carhart (1997) added new factor for the Fama and French risk-return, and brings in a fourth factor known as a price momentum factor. This factor explains the tend ency of the company with positive previous profits in order to gain positive future returns and for companies with negative previous profits in order to gain negative future returns. However, this model (Fama and French Model) is applying statistical regression as follows: r rft =a j +b j rmt rft +b j SMBt +b j HMLt +e jt (1) where, rjt: is the known profits on security j over period of time t; rmt: is the profit have been made from the market over the period t. I got the chain of the known profit on the market, (rmt-rft) from ken Frenchs website4 where it is illustrated as the value weight return on all NASDAQ, AMEX and NYSE shares (from CRSP) and deducting the treasury bill for one month. Rft: is the rate of the risk free over the period t and explained here by the monthly profit on the quarter period of treasury bill a j: is the cut off and explained by the Arbitrage pricing model in order to be equal to zero. b1 to b3 : is the betas factor on the factors of three risks which include the HML, SMB and the excess return on the market. e jt : is the remaining profits on the portfolio j over the period of t SMBt: is the variation in the profits for the small companies against companies over the period of t. HMLt: is the variation in the profits of the companies with big market value (B/M) ratio against the profits of the companies that have low B/M ratio. However, Carharts (1997) divided this model (Fama and French model) as follow: r r =a +b r r +b SMB +b HML +b MOM +e (2) The price momentum factor (MOM) considers as the profit on high prior return portfolio and detected the average profit on low prior profit portfolios, which is the average profits on securities with the top profit from the performance over the previous years minus the average profit on securities, which is had the bad profits from the performance (Bello ,2008) Criticism of CAPM Capital Assets Pricing Model does not give a clear view about the average stock returns. Particularly, the CAPM does not illustrate why during the previous 40 years, small shares do better than large shares. Also, CAPM does not illustrate how the companies which have high rate of a book to market (B/M) ratio did better than the companies with low (B/M) ratios. Moreover, it does not explain why the shares that continue to achieve high profit do better than the companies which achieve low profits. However, the aim of this research is to comprehend if the version of CAPM can illustrate these patterns. According to Jensen (1968), Dybving and Ross (1985), Jagannathan and Wang (1996) who said that the Capital Assets Pricing Model (CAPM) can carry perfectly, time by the time, although that the shares are mispriced by the capital assets pricing model CAPM. Also, the unqualified alpha can be zero when the alpha is not conditional, and if beta fluctuates during the time and is related with the market volatility or equity. In other words, the portfolio of the market can be variance and efficient. (Hansen and Richard, 1987) Furthermore, there are many studies discussed that the time varying beta can illustrate the effect of B/M and the size. Also, Zhang (2005) contributes in developing the model when the high risk premium will lead to high B/M stock. Moreover, many researchers as Lettau and Ludvigson (2001), Lustig and Van Nieuwerburgh (2005), Jagannathan and Wang (1996), and Santos and Veronesi (2006) who explained that high, small B/M beat shares will be varying during the trade cycle, and according to the researchers, widely explained why those shares have good alpha. (Lewellena and Nagel, 2006) According to Fama and French (1992) who illustrate a value premium in u.s share return in 1963, and shares that have a high ratio of the book value of equity to the market value of equity have higher profits than shares with a non-high book to market ratio. Expand the exam back to 1926, Fama and French (2000) document a rate premium in the profit of the beginning period. Moreover, Fama and French (1993) illustrate that the capital assets pricing model (CAPM) of Sharpe (1964), Ang and Chen (2005) and Lintner (1965) did not explain the premium value. Also, Loughran (1997) said the premium value from 1963 to 1995 in any case exacting to small shares. This paper has three aims. Firstly, to give a clear picture about the value premium fluctuating with the company size. Secondly, evaluating if ÃŽÂ ² is in relative to the average profit by capital asset pricing model (CAPM). Finally, to measure whether the market of capital assets pricing model (CAPM) ÃŽÂ ²s illustrate the premiums value. Therefore, the results of the variation in premium value are easily summarized. Moreover, Loughran`s (1997) proved that and said there is no premium value among large shares appear to be exacting to (1) applying the book-to- market ratio as he growth value indicator. (2) the post-1963 period (3) determines the test to u.s. shares. During the period 1926 to 1963, the premium value is the same for small and big u.s. shares and when we use price earnings ratio rather than market to book ratio in order to distinguish growth stock and value, and during the period 1963-2004 introduce small variation between the premium value to big and small us shares. Moreover, they used another sample test, and they measured international premium value during the period 1975 to 2004 from 14 main markets outside the united states of America (USA), and the results of B/M or E/P on international stocks shows that the premium value is parallel to big and small shares, and the indication on the USA premium va lue and the capital assets pricing model (CAPM) is a bit more difficult. The overall premium value in the USA average profit is very similar and there is no variation before and after 1963, while Franzoni (2001) found that market ÃŽÂ ²s fluctuated dramatically. After that period, stocks value to indicate to lower ÃŽÂ ²s than stock growth the overturn of the needs of the capital asset pricing model (CAPM) to illustrate the premium value. Accordingly, the capital assets pricing model fails the exam during the period 1963 to 2004; if or not one permit to for time variation ÃŽÂ ²s over the period 1963 to 2004. Furthermore, the stock value had higher ÃŽÂ ²s compared to growth stock, and Ang and Chen (2005) found that the capital assets pricing model determined the premium value in higher rate. And it is tempting to gather that the capital assets pricing model gives a good explanation of the average profits before 1963. Conclusion According to the CAPM which suggests that the all difference in ÃŽÂ ² across securities is the same method with the expected returns. On the other hands Fama and French (1992) suggest that the difference in ÃŽÂ ² connected to size proves up in the average returns when the portfolio is created on size and ÃŽÂ ², but the difference in ÃŽÂ ² unconnected to the size appears to go unrewarded. This proposes that disagree with the CAPM, the size or a non-ÃŽÂ ² risk linked to the size that counts, not with ÃŽÂ ². Thus the examinations here expand this result. When the portfolios are formed on the size, B/M, and ÃŽÂ ², they find that the difference in ÃŽÂ ² linked with B/M and size are compensated with the average of the returns for 1928 to 1963, on the other hands the difference in ÃŽÂ ² unconnected to size and B/M goes unrewarded during the period 1928 to 1963. (Fama, and French, 2006) In conclusion, our evidence that the variation in ÃŽÂ ² is irrelevant to B/M and size is unrewarded in average profits is as efficient for huge shares and for small shares. This should lay to rest the common claim that experiential infringement of the capital assets pricing model is inconsequential due to the limited small shares and consequently, small fraction of invested wealth. Communication: A Literature Review Communication: A Literature Review Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.0 Introduction People communicate since they are part of society. The speech plays the main role in the communication, since it can express complicated ideas through important tone in the use of wide range of means. However the function of speech is not only convey information or messages but also connected with the interaction between people. This interaction supposed to be polite as etiquette of absolute majority of culture so that people can feel comfortable while communicate. Due to this, politeness should be applied in daily conversation. Politeness is a phenomenon that has been drawing a lot of attention in recent years. According to Huang (2008), everyone perceives as natural and understood what it means. According to many linguists, the importance of politeness strategies lies in maintaining a social order and is seen as â€Å"a precondition of human cooperation† (Brown Levinson, 2000, xiii). Lakoff said that the purpose of politeness is to avoid conflicts (Lakoff, 1889. 101). Polit eness strategies are learned when your mother tells you to thank someone who has, for example, given you a present for your fifth birthday. It seems to be very important to stick to these conventions, which have developed since human being exists. However, the politeness theory by Brown and Levinson is widely accepted and utilized as the basis for research by the researchers in the field of not only sociolinguistics but of psychology, business, and so on (Yuka, 2009). This study will focusing on the use of Brown and Levinson politeness strategies among University Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) student and measure the frequency they used it. 2.1 Politeness Theory/Principle Politeness theory is the theory that accounts for the redressing of the insults to face posed by face-threatening acts to addressees. Politeness theory, derived from Goffinan’s (1967) understanding of â€Å"facework,† suggests that all individuals hold two primary desires, positive face (the desire to be liked by others) and negative face (the desire to have one’s actions unconstrained by others). In our interpersonal interactions, we occasionally threaten others’ face needs, or desires, by exposing them to criticisms which is positive face threatening acts and requests which called negative face threatening acts. According to Simpson (1997), Face Threatening Acts (FTAs) is utterances that disrupt the balance of face maintenance. Thus, the manner in which we criticize or make requests of another is influenced by the degree of politeness that we wish to convey. Goffman’s (1967) argued that maintaining face feels good will showed an emotional attachme nt to the face that we maintain and disruptions of this, or losing face, results in a loss of the internal emotional support that is protecting oneself in a social situation. Plus, maintaining it is the expression of the speakers’ intention to mitigate face threats carried by certain face threatening acts toward another (Mills, 2003, p. 6). Relying on a Grician framework, proposed the Politeness Principle (PP) and elaborated on politeness as a regulative factor in communication through a set of maxims (Grice, 1989). Politeness, as found out, is a facilitating factor that influences the relation between ‘self’, which means the speaker, and ‘other’ that is the addressee and/or a third party. Besides, it minimizing the expression of impolite beliefs as the beliefs are unpleasant or at a cost to it (Leech, 1983). Later, politeness formulated by Brown Levinson (1978;1987). Politeness theory has since expanded academia’s perception of politeness. B esides, in an extension of Goffman’s (1967) discussion of face, Brown and Levinson (1978) also used two types of face that Goffman mentioned. Another scholar Yule, (2006) defines positive face is the pro-social person you present yourself as while negative face suggests giving space to disagreement or refusal, to have freedom of action and not to be imposed by others. In addition, politeness theory by Brown Levinson, (1978;1987) is a dynamic theory of human behavior describing linguistic strategies associated with politeness behavior. Because of its all-encompassing nature and ability to accommodate diverse aspects of human behavior, such as cross-cultural differences, gender roles, exchange theory, and interpersonal address, this theory has been considered to be both exemplary and a desirable ideal for experimental social psychology as a whole (R. Brown, 1990). However this study was not to examine face conceptualization as past study by Rudick (2010) which the researcher was tried to get perception of students by combining politeness strategies and face conceptual with classroom justice scales. Yet this study is just focused on the use of politeness strategies among Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) students and the frequency scale of each strategy. 2.2 Brown and Levinson’s politeness strategies Brown and Levinson’s approach is based on Goffman’s study on the notion of face. Goffman (1967) defines face as an image of self-delineated in terms of approved social attributes. The moment a certain face is taken, it will have to be lived up to. Here he coins the expressions ‘to lose face’ and ‘to save one’s face’. From these concepts, the following expressions are derived: ‘to have, be in or maintain face’, which stand for an internally consistent face to be in the wrong face, which refers to the situation when information clashes with the face which a person sustains; and to be ‘out of face’, which means that a participant’s expect line is not yet prepared for a certain situation (Goffman, 1967). Goffman claims that interaction, especially face to face talk, is ruled by a mutual acceptance that participants in an encounter will tend to maintain their own face, defensive orientation, as well as other p articipants’ faces, protective orientation. â€Å"To study face-saving†, he states, â€Å"is to study the traffic rules of social interaction† (1967:12). According to him, face- saving actions are usually standardized practices which differ from one society to another as well as among subcultures and even individuals. Despite the differences, everyone is expected to have some knowledge and experience of how face work is used. Brown and Levinson borrowed these concepts and elaborated them somewhat in order to define the strategies that speakers follow when constructing messages. They treat the aspects of face as ‘basic wants’, and they address the universality of the notion of face. According to them, face has a twofold character positive face, which stands for the desire to be approved of and negative face, which responds to the desire that one’s actions are not hindered (Brown and Levinson 1987). They shape the term face-threatening acts (FT As), and agree with Goffman that interlocutors will try to maintain others people’s faces as well as their own. Therefore, the effect of FTAs will be minimized as much as possible through linguistic strategies (Brown and Levinson 1987). There are four strategies in politeness based on Brown and Levinson which are positive politeness, negative politeness, bold on record and bold off record. However, in this study, bold off record is not included because the theory is not deeply explained and difficult to collect data in classroom interaction. According to David A. Morand ( 2003 ), this difficulties will encounter when researcher need to detect sentences based on ambiguous meaning. Based on past study by Scollon and Scollon (1995), negative politeness is often preferable than positive politeness among British people. On this study, the researcher again will used Scollon and Scollon’s hypothesis to measure a qualitative data among UTAR student which can be clearly state a s Asian people. To fulfill the needs of this study the researcher applied three out of four politeness strategies. First strategy is positive politeness which mean an expression of solidarity which can say as appreciating addressee’s positive face and sharing the same values plus an act of sympathy towards the addressee. In other word, no inference required (Hirschova, 2006). Meanwhile based on Brown and Levinson (1987), positive politeness is a sender’ attempt to communicate intimacy with receivers. This kind of intimacy can be noticed in a friendly and familiar conversation in which the relationship between addresser and addressee is close. Second type is negative politeness which enables the speaker to avoid conflict among them while communicate by hesitating and softening the utterance with devices such as modality or indirect questions (Rudick, 2010). To make it clear, according to Brown and Levinson (1987), negative politeness is redressive action addressed to the addressee’s negative face. In other word, the key aspect is the addresser show respect towards the addressee by giving him/her freedom to react in a free way. In fact it used more intended enunciation in a careful way with a set of polite phrase examples Could you,†¦Sorry to bother you but,†¦ The addresser is extremely indirect so as not to harm the addressee’s negative face and hurt their feeling. Usually this strategy happened among unfamiliarity between the addresser and addressee or their different social status. Third type is bald on record which can be defined as a direct way of saying things, without any minimization to the imposition, in a direct, clear, unambiguous and concise way (Brown and Levinson, 1978;1987) For example â€Å"Do it!†. Brown and Levinson (1987) claim that the primary reason for bald on record usage may be generally stated as whenever the speaker wants to do FTA with maximum efficiency more than s/he wants to satisfy hearer’s face, even to any degree, s/he will choose the bald on record strategy. Final type is bald off record which Brown and Levinson (1987) defined as a communicative act which is done in such a way that is not possible to attribute one clear communicative intention to the act. In this case, the actor leaves her/himself an â€Å"out† by providing her/himself with a number of defensible interpretations. S/he cannot be held to have committed her/himself to just one particular interpretation of her/his act. In other words, Brown and Levinson claim, the actor leaves it up to the addressee to decide how to interpret the act. Off record utterances are essential in indirect use of language. One says something that is rather general. In this case, the hearer must make some inference to recover what was intended. For example, if somebody says â€Å"It is hot in here†, the hidden meaning of the utterance can be a request to open the window or to switch on the air conditioner. However due to this hidden meaning and ambiguous, this strategy will not be carry out to collect data on the use of politeness among UTAR student. This statement was agree by the scholar David A. Morand ( 2003 ) in his book ‘Gender talk at work’ by mentioned this difficulties will encounter when researcher need to detect sentences based on ambiguous meaning. To sum up, the politeness strategies may be applied and this study and this study will investigate how student use Brown and Levinson (1978;1987) politeness strategies with their instructors based on open ended question given and finally this study will measure or calculate the frequency that student used on the three type of politeness strategies. 2.3 Classroom interaction Language classrooms can be seen as sociolinguistic environments (Cazden, 1988) and discourse communities (Hall and Verplaetse, 2000) in which interaction is believed to contribute to learners’ language development. According to a review of studies in the area of classroom interaction and language learning presented by Hall and Verplaetse (2000), interactive processes are not strictly individual or equivalent across learners and situations; language learning is a social enterprise, jointly constructed, and intrinsically linked to learners’ repeated and regular participation in classroom activities. Based on Ghosh (2010), classroom interaction is a practice that enhances the development of the two very important language skills which are speaking and listening among the learners. This device helps the learner to be competent enough to think critically and share their views among their peers. A major goal of is to provide a prospective teachers with sufficient knowledge, s kills and behavior to enable them to function effectively in future teaching experience. Interaction has a similar meaning in the classroom. We might define classroom interaction as a two-way process between the participants in the learning process. The teacher influences the learners and vice versa. The teacher’s role is important to influence the learner. It is the responsibility of the teacher to create a learning atmosphere inside the classroom. It is through these interactive sessions that the teacher can extract responses from learners and motivate them to come out with new ideas related to the topic. Teacher is an observer who helps the learners to construct an innovative learning product through group discussions, debates and many more. Teacher also will define their self as a planner who plans out the best of the modules of interaction that would be effective to invite the learners in classroom interaction (Ghosh, 2010). Meanwhile, in vice versa which the learners ar e trying to influence the teacher is by students’ sense of social relatedness in classroom (Connell and Wellborn, 1991). When students experience a sense of belonging at school and supportive relationships with teachers and classmates, they are motivated to participate actively and appropriately in the life of the classroom.